Abstract

The early development of emotion regulation behaviours is predictive of lifelong socioemotional functioning and risk of psychopathology. Traditional developmental models of emotion regulation tend to categorize early regulatory strategies as “adaptive” or “maladaptive,” with the assumption that certain strategies are superior to others. This is in contrast to recent research in adult emotion regulation, which contends that the benefits of any given strategy vary across individuals and situations (Bonanno & Burton, 2013).

In the current set of studies, observational coding systems were used to capture the range of regulatory behaviours employed across early development in contexts of both normative interaction with mothers and brief periods of mild distress. Rather than categorizing regulatory behaviours as helpful or unhelpful, strategies were examined individually (Study 1) or in co-occurring behavioural patterns (Study 2) to understand their associations with risk and protective factors, including positive and negative parenting behaviours (Studies 1 and 2), maternal depression (Study 1), and child temperament (Study 2).

Study 1 included a sample of depressed and non-depressed mothers and their four-month-old infants (N=35). Infant emotion regulation and maternal sensitivity and hostility were observationally coded during the Still-Face procedure. Results indicated that maternal sensitivity moderated the association between maternal depression and infant emotion regulation during the Still-Face period, such that maternal depressive symptoms negatively predicted infant gaze aversion when sensitivity was low and positively predicted gaze aversion when sensitivity was high. Maternal hostility did not moderate the association during either the Normal or Still-Face periods but did have a direct effect on emotion regulation during the Still-Face period. Higher maternal hostility was associated with increased self-soothing and decreased gaze aversion. Results suggest that parenting both mitigates the effects of maternal depression and directly impacts regulatory behaviour use.

In Study 2, mother-infant dyads (N=167) were followed at four time points from infancy to preschool (6 months, 12 months, 18 months, 4.5 years). Emotion regulation behaviours were observationally coded during periods of mild distress at each time point, as well as during normative dyadic interaction periods as a comparison point. Latent profile analyses were used to identify patterns of co-occurring behaviours. The associations of the identified profiles with parenting (maternal sensitivity, non-hostility) and, at one time point, child temperament (emotionality, sociability) were explored. For a subset of the sample, the longitudinal associations between regulatory profiles and socioemotional outcomes (emotion regulation, depression, anxiety, aggression) in middle childhood (9-12 years) were also tested. Results indicated that more optimal parenting (higher sensitivity and non-hostility) was associated with more complex profiles of regulation during periods of induced mild distress, and that such profiles were predictive of positive socioemotional outcomes in later childhood. Findings suggest that attaining a diverse repertoire of regulatory behaviours in early life may be as important as the specific behaviours used.

The present dissertation makes an important contribution to the emotion regulation literature by considering the function and adaptiveness of a variety of regulatory behaviours, challenging current conceptualizations that behaviours fall into categories of “adaptive” or maladaptive,” and including risk and protective factors at multiple levels of influence, including parenting, child characteristics, and maternal mental health. Findings from both studies suggest that aspects of regulatory flexibility may be emerging in early life, such that infants are adjusting their behaviours to meet situational demands, and that this flexibility may promote healthy socioemotional development. Results have implications for the design of early intervention to prevent future difficulties with dysregulation.