Abstract

This research includes three studies that contribute to developmental psychology and gender studies by exploring gender identity development in diverse cultural contexts during middle childhood. By examining gender identity through a multidimensional lens and considering cultural and social factors, this work seeks to move beyond traditional binary views of gender. A cross-national approach, comparing samples from Montréal and Barranquilla, offers insights into both individualized and culturally specific features of gender identity development. A nuanced understanding of these relations can inform culturally sensitive and gender inclusive practices that support gender development in childhood. Study 1 investigated the replicability and generalizability of a dual-identity model of gender among children aged 10-12 years. Using cross-national samples, four gender identity clusters were identified through K-Cluster means analyses. Longitudinal data revealed changes in children's identification with gender traits over the school year, particularly those associated with the opposite gender. These changes varied across socioeconomic and demographic contexts. Study 2 examined the relations between gender identity, peer victimization, gender pressure, and anxiety among fifth and sixth-grade students. Using comparative and regression analyses, it assessed mean differences in these variables across gender clusters and how the interaction of gender identity, anxiety, and gender pressure predicted peer victimization across sociodemographic groups. The study reveals that children who identify with both gender features report the highest levels of peer victimization,
anxiety, and gender pressure. A statistically significant interaction shows that these dynamics are more pronounced in Barranquilla than in Montréal, underscoring the role of sociocultural contexts in shaping these relations. Study 3 explored the relation between peer-assessed school
performance and self-perceived cognitive competence, considering gender-related traits and contextual variables. Key findings using structural equation modelling reveal that peer-assessed competence is more strongly associated with self-perceived competence for upper-middle-class counterparts. This association is weaker for girls than boys, potentially due to SES influences on boys' academic trajectories in STEM fields. Additionally, communal traits such as being affectionate, sympathetic, understanding, and sensitive to the needs of others are more strongly associated with self-perceived competence for girls. In sum, these findings highlight the importance of recognizing diverse cultural messages that shape children's gender identities. This work can better inform educators and clinicians to support fluidity in gender expression as a normative part of development, fostering inclusive environments that promote positive identity development while also respecting diverse expressions across cultural contexts.