References:

References:
Adisa, R. S., & Adekunle, O. A. (2010). Farmer-Herdsmen Conflicts: A Factor Analysis of Socio-economic Conflict Variables among Arable Crop Farmers in North Central Nigeria. Journal of Human Ecology, 30(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2010.11906266
Agyapong, E. M., & Gumbo, M. T. (2022). Information needs and information-seeking behaviour: A case of university students. In PQDTGlobal. University of South Africa (South Africa).
Ahmed, I., Jeon, G., & Piccialli, F. (2022). From Artificial Intelligence to eXplainable Artificial Intelligence in Industry 4.0: A survey on What, How, and Where. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 18(8), 1–1. https://doi.org/10.1109/tii.2022.3146552
Ahmed, M. O., & Msughter, A. E. (2022). Assessment of the spread of fake news of Covid-19 amongst social media users in Kano State, Nigeria. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 6, 100189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2022.100189
Ajao, T. (2023). #EndSARS organizing: Lessons and opportunities for Nigeria’s future governance. In D. Omanga, A. Mare, & P. Mainye (Eds), Digital Technologies, Elections and Campaigns in Africa (pp. 191–209). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003429081-15
Akinfemisoye, M. O. (2015). Negotiating inclusion: New’alternative’media and the institutional journalistic practices of print journalists in Nigeria [PhD Thesis, University of Central Lancashire]. https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/id/eprint/16627/
Akinfemisoye, M. O. (2018). ‘We Cannot Bite the Finger that Feeds Us’: Journalists’ Dilemmas and the Appropriation of ‘Alternative’ Media in Nigerian Print Newsrooms. In H. M. Mabweazara (Ed.), Newsmaking Cultures in Africa (pp. 337–356). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-54109-3_16
Akinwale, A. A. (2021). Repression of Press Freedom in Nigerian Democratic Dispensations. Africa Development, 35(3). https://doi.org/10.4314/ad.v35i3.70207
Alberts, D. S., & Papp, D. S. (1997). The information age: An anthology on its impact and consequences. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/html/tr/ADA461496/
Alice, S. I., & Ebuka, O. D. (2024). The potential and challenges of AI adoption in marketing across Africa: Opportunities for digital transformation. Business and Investment Review, 2(5). http://lgdpublishing.org/index.php/birev/article/view/140
Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211
Allen, J., Arechar, A. A., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2021). Scaling up fact-checking using the wisdom of crowds. Science Advances, 7(36), eabf4393. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abf4393
Alordiah, C. O. (2023). Proliferation of artificial intelligence tools: Adaptation strategies in the higher education sector. Propellers Journal of Education, 2(1), 53–65.
Alowais, S. A., Alghamdi, S. S., Alsuhebany, N., Alqahtani, T., Alshaya, A., Almohareb, S. N., Aldairem, A., Alrashed, M., Saleh, K. B., Badreldin, H. A., Yami, A., Harbi, S. A., & Albekairy, A. M. (2023). Revolutionizing healthcare: The role of artificial intelligence in clinical practice. BMC Medical Education, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-023-04698-z
Alvesson, M., Einola, K., & Sandberg, J. (2022). Reflexive Design in Qualitative Research. In The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research Design Vol. 2 (pp. 23–40). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529770278.n3
Amazeen, M. A. (2018). Practitioner perceptions: Critical junctures and the global emergence and challenges of fact-checking. International Communication Gazette, 81(6–8), 541–561. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748048518817674
Amodu, A. D., & Otesile, A. E. (2023). A Multimodal Discourse Analysis of Visual Illustrations Related to COVID-19 Awareness in Nigeria. Linguistics and Literature Review, 9(1), 23–48. https://doi.org/10.32350/llr.91/02
Anjorin, P. (2023). The Nigeria Fact-Checkers’ Coalition showed how collaborative journalism can work in West Africa. Nieman Lab. https://www.niemanlab.org/2023/10/the-nigeria-fact-checkers-coalition-showed-how-collaborative-journalism-can-work-in-west-africa/
Apuke, O. D., & Omar, B. (2021). Social media affordances and information abundance: Enabling fake news sharing during the COVID-19 health crisis. Health Informatics Journal, 27(3), 14604582211021470. https://doi.org/10.1177/14604582211021470
Bakke, N. A., & Barland, J. (2022). Disruptive Innovations and Paradigm Shifts in Journalism as a Business: From Advertisers First to Readers First and Traditional Operational Models to the AI Factory. SAGE Open, 12(2), 215824402210948. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221094819
Balakrishnan, V., Ng, W. Z., Soo, M. C., Han, G. J., & Lee, C. J. (2022). Infodemic and fake news – A comprehensive overview of its global magnitude during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021: A scoping review. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 78(1), 103144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103144
Baptista, J. P., & Gradim, A. (2020). Understanding fake news consumption: A review. 9(10), 185–201.
Barrón-Cedeño, A., Elsayed, T., Nakov, P., Da San Martino, G., Hasanain, M., Suwaileh, R., & Haouari, F. (2020). CheckThat! at CLEF 2020: Enabling the automatic identification and verification of claims in social media. In J. M. Jose, E. Yilmaz, J. Magalhães, P. Castells, N. Ferro, M. J. Silva, & F. Martins (Eds), Advances in Information Retrieval (Vol. 12036, pp. 499–507). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45442-5_65
Bender, E., McMillan-Major, A., Shmitchell, S., & Gebru, T. (2021). On the dangers of stochastic parrots: Can language models be too big? 22, 610–623. https://doi.org/10.1145/3442188.3445922
Bennett, W. L., & Livingston, S. (2018). The disinformation order: Disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions. European Journal of Communication, 33(2), 122–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323118760317
Benzie, A., & Montasari, R. (2022). Artificial intelligence and the spread of misand disinformation. In R. Montasari (Ed.), Artificial Intelligence and National Security (pp. 1–18). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/9783031067099_1
Birhane, A. (2021). Algorithmic injustice: A relational ethics approach. Patterns, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patter.2021.100205
Bovet, A., & Makse, H. A. (2019). Influence of fake news in Twitter during the 2016 US presidential election. Nature Communications, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-07761-2
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589–597. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). One size fits all? What counts as quality practice in (reflexive) thematic analysis? Qualitative Research in Psychology, 18(3), 328–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2020.1769238
Broussard, M., Diakopoulos, N., Guzman, A. L., Abebe, R., Dupagne, M., & Chuan, C.-H. (2019). Artificial Intelligence and Journalism. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 96(3), 673–695. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699019859901
Carlson, M. (2023). Epistemic contests in journalism: Examining struggles over journalistic ways of knowing. Digital Journalism, 13(3), 362–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2023.2288392
Cath, C. (2018). Governing artificial intelligence: Ethical, legal and technical opportunities and challenges. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 376(2133), 20180080. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2018.0080
Cazzamatta, R., & Sarısakaloğlu, A. (2025). AI-generated misinformation: A case study on emerging trends in fact-checking practices across Brazil, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Emerging Media, 3(2), 214–251. https://doi.org/10.1177/27523543251344971
Chadwick, A., Vaccari, C., & O’Loughlin, B. (2018). Do tabloids poison the well of social media? Explaining democratically dysfunctional news sharing. New Media & Society, 20(11), 4255–4274. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818769689
Chaka, C. (2011). Research on Web 2.0 Digital Technologies in Education. In M. Thomas (Ed.), Digital Education (pp. 37–59). Palgrave Macmillan US. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230118003_3
Chambers, S. (2020). Truth, deliberative democracy, and the virtues of accuracy: Is fake news destroying the public sphere? Political Studies, 69(1), 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719890811
Chan-Olmsted, S. M. (2019). A Review of Artificial Intelligence Adoptions in the Media Industry. International Journal on Media Management, 21(3–4), 193–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/14241277.2019.1695619
Cheruiyot, D., & Ferrer-Conill, R. (2018). “Fact-Checking Africa”: Epistemologies, data and the expansion of journalistic discourse. Digital Journalism, 6(8), 964–975. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2018.1493940
Christian, E. C. (2019). Explainability imperative of generative artificial intelligence navigating the moral dilemma of AI in Nigeria and charting a path for the future. Universal Library of Arts and Humanities, 1(2), 1–17.
Chua, A. Y. K., & Banerjee, S. (2017). To share or not to share: The role of epistemic belief in online health rumors. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 108(2), 36–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmedinf.2017.08.010
Chukwuma, O. (2023). Influence of voter education through the media on the awareness and participation in Nigeria’s 2023 general elections among residents of South-East Nigeria. African Communication Research, 11(1), 52–67.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th edn). Sage Publications.
Dare, O. (2016). The day Zik didn’t die. The Nation Newspaper. https://thenationonlineng.net/day-zik-didnt-die/
Dauda, M. (2018). Watchdog journalism in Nigeria: Democracy and accountability. Asian People Journal (APJ), 1(2), 1–20.
Deuze, M. (2005). What Is journalism?: Professional Identity and Ideology of Journalists Reconsidered. Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism, 6(4), 442–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884905056815
Diakopoulos, N. (2019). Automating the news: How algorithms are rewriting the media. Harvard University Press. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=mlWQDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Diakopoulos,+2019&ots=_DLdYdAlfA&sig=BFvdoKb4gNl1ugbBF48yyNMGK5o
Díaz-Rodríguez, N., Ser, D., Coeckelbergh, M., López, M., Herrera-Viedma, E., & Herrera, F. (2023). Connecting the Dots in Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence: From AI Principles, Ethics, and Key Requirements to Responsible AI Systems and Regulation. Computers and Society. https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2305.02231
Dierickx, L., Sirén-Heikel, S., & Lindén, C.-G. (2024). Outsourcing, augmenting, or complicating: The dynamics of AI in fact-checking practices in the nordics. Emerging Media, 2(3), 449–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/27523543241288846
Djeffal, C., Siewert, M. B., & Wurster, S. (2022). Role of the state and responsibility in governing artificial intelligence: A comparative analysis of AI strategies. Journal of European Public Policy, 29(11), 1799–1821. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2022.2094987
Drumpt, S. van, Chawla, K., Barbereau, T., & Spagnuelo, D. (2025). Secondary use under the European Health Data Space: Setting the scene and towards a research agenda on privacy-enhancing technologies. Frontiers in Digital Health, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.3389/fdgth.2025.1602101
Duyile, D. (2025). Evolution of indigenous Language Press in Nigeria: Historical Overview of Yoruba Language Newspapers (1859-1990). SustainE, 3(2). https://sustaine.org/journal/index.php/sciences/article/view/133
Ecker, U. K. H., Tay, L. Q., Roozenbeek, J., Van Der Linden, S., Cook, J., Oreskes, N., & Lewandowsky, S. (2025). Why misinformation must not be ignored. American Psychologist, 80(6), 867–878. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001448
Edwards, R., Davidson, E., Jamieson, L., & Weller, S. (2021). Theory and the breadth-and-depth method of analysing large amounts of qualitative data: A research note. Quality & Quantity, 55(4), 1275–1280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-020-01054-x
Egwu, P. (2023). “We can’t do this alone”: Nigerian fact-checkers teamed up to debunk politicians’ false claims at this year’s election. Reutersinstitute.Politics.Ox.Ac.Uk. https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/news/we-cant-do-alone-nigerian-fact-checkers-teamed-debunk-politicians-false-claims-years-election
Egwu, P., & Saint, E. (2024). From debunking disinformation to turning datasets into stories, AI is changing newsrooms in Nigeria. International Journalists’ Network. https://ijnet.org/en/story/debunking-disinformation-turning-datasets-stories-ai-changing-newsrooms-nigeria
Eke, C., & Adeyemi, M. O. (2024). Leveraging artificial intelligence for enhancement of public relations strategies in Nigerian economic recovery in 21st century. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research, 21(3), 2–21.
Farkas, J., & Schou, J. (2023). Post-Truth, fake news and democracy. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003434870
Fetzer, J. H. (1990). What is Artificial Intelligence? Artificial Intelligence: Its Scope and Limits, 4(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1900-6_1
Floridi, L. (2018). Artificial intelligence, deepfakes and a future of ectypes. Philosophy & Technology, 31(3), 317–321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-018-0325-3
Fricker, M. (2007). Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. Oxford University Press.
Gbule, N. J. (2022). Fake News, Fake Prophets: Mis/Disinformation, Public Health, and the COVID-19 Global Pandemic in Nigeria and Beyond: A Christian Narrative. CrossCurrents, 72(4), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1353/cro.2022.0031
Geeng, C., Yee, S., & Roesner, F. (2020). Fake News on Facebook and Twitter: Investigating How People (Don’t) Investigate. Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376784
Gerbina, T. V. (2021). Science disinformation: On the problem of fake news. 48(4), 290–298.
Gerken, T. (2025). Be careful with DeepSeek, australia says—So is it safe to use? BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2k7r5nrvpo
González-Pérez, L.-A., & Chaparro-Domínguez, M.-Á. (2026). Generation Z and social media: An analysis of news consumption by communication students in South Florida (USA). Communication & Society. https://doi.org/10.15581/003.39.1.001
Gorwa, R. (2019). What is platform governance? Information, Communication & Society, 22(6), 854–871. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1573914
Gorwa, R., Binns, R., & Katzenbach, C. (2020). Algorithmic content moderation: Technical and political challenges in the automation of platform governance. Big Data & Society, 7(1), 205395171989794. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951719897945
Graves, L. (2016). Deciding what’s true: The rise of political fact-checking in American journalism. Columbia University Press. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=VcGlDAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=Graves,+L.+(2016).+Deciding+what%E2%80%99s+true:+The+rise+of+political+fact-checking+in+American+journalism.+Columbia+University+Press.&ots=7QgyoHaOJ5&sig=YpzYSNS-4-xmy3y4Al40aXtbMjg
Graves, L. (2017). Anatomy of a Fact Check: Objective Practice and the Contested Epistemology of Fact Checking: Anatomy of a Fact Check. Communication, Culture & Critique, 10(3), 518–537. https://doi.org/10.1111/cccr.12163
Graves, L., & Cherubini, F. (2016). The rise of fact-checking sites in Europe. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:d55ef650-e351-4526-b942-6c9e00129ad7
Gray, J., Chambers, L., & Bounegru, L. (2012). The data journalism handbook: How journalists can use data to improve the news. O’Reilly Media, Inc. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=W-sHp0ECqPUC&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=Gray,+J.,+Bounegru,+L.,+%26+Chambers,+L.+(2012).+The+data+journalism+handbook:+How+journalists+can+use+data+to+improve+the+news.+O%E2%80%99Reilly+Media.&ots=_ZOzIeLiqr&sig=Ip4-7ce6WyzjRkF_mtC-PoP1De8
Grbeša Zenzerović, M., & Nenadić, I. (2022). Strengthening resilience to disinformation: The state of affairs and guidelines for action. Centre for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF), European Digital Media Observatory (EDMO)). Agency for Electronic Media. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/75571
Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B., & Lazer, D. (2019). Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Science, 363(6425), 374–378. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau2706
Guess, A., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1), eaau4586. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau4586
Guimarães, R. M., Portela, M. C., Villela, D. A. M., Correa Matta, G., & De Freitas, C. M. (2021). Younger Brazilians hit by COVID-19 – What are the implications? The Lancet Regional Health - Americas, 1, 100014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2021.100014
Hanitzsch, T., & Vos, T. P. (2018). Journalism beyond democracy: A new look into journalistic roles in political and everyday life. Journalism, 19(2), 146–164. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884916673386
Hartley, R. (2024). Efficacy analysis of online artificial intelligence fact-checking tools. The International Review of Information Ethics, 33(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.29173/irie502
Hassan, I. (2023). Dissemination of disinformation on political and electoral processes in Nigeria: An exploratory study. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2023.2216983
Hayat, K., Rosenthal, M., Xu, S., Arshed, M., Li, P., Zhai, P., Desalegn, G. K., & Fang, Y. (2020). View of Pakistani residents toward coronavirus disease (COVID-19) during a rapid outbreak: A rapid online survey. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(10), 3347. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103347
Hijab, S. (2025, March 20). DeepSeek’s Censorship Controversy: A Global Shake-Up in AI Development. Modern Diplomacy. https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2025/03/20/deepseeks-censorship-controversy-a-global-shake-up-in-ai-development/
Hull, G. (2023). Dirty data labeled dirt cheap: Epistemic injustice in machine learning systems. Ethics and Information Technology, 25(3), 38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-023-09712-y
Inobemhe, K., Santas, T., & Udeh, N.-T. S. (2022). A discourse on the effectivenes of health communication on COVID-19 infodemic and conspiracy theory in nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social & Behavioral Research, 6(3), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.30935/mjosbr/12331
Inobemhe, K., Ugber, F., Ojo, I. L., & Santas, T. (2020). New media and the proliferation of fake news in Nigeria. Nasarawa Journal of Multimedia and Communication Studies, 2(2), 155–169.
International fact-checking network. (2025). International fact-checking network. Poynter. https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/
Izugbara, C., & Obiyan, M. O. (2020). Why more must be done to fight bogus COVID-19 cure claims. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/why-more-must-be-done-to-fight-bogus-covid-19-cure-claims-138220
Jakubów, P. (2026). Octopus newsroom. Octopus Newsroom. https://www.octopus-news.com/
Jonathan, Z. (2018). Fake news responsible for herdsmen, farmers’ crisis. Punch News. https://punchng.com/fake-news-responsible-for-herdsmen-farmers-crisis-lai-mohammed/
Jones, B., Jones, R., & Luger, E. (2022). AI ‘everywhere and nowhere’: Addressing the AI intelligibility problem in public service journalism. Digital Journalism, 10(10), 1731–1755. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2022.2145328
Jowett, G. S., & O’donnell, V. (2018). Propaganda & persuasion. Sage publications. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ThhcDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Jowett+%26+O%E2%80%99Donnell,+2019%3B+&ots=FmEtR1CKn6&sig=x5nZMFPGEBBaWso0strfGDzyj7E
Karakas, F. (2009). Welcome to World 2.0: The new digital ecosystem. 30(4), 23–30.
Kaur, R., Gabrijelčič, D., & Klobučar, T. (2023). Artificial intelligence for cybersecurity: Literature review and future research directions. Information Fusion, 97(101804), 101804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inffus.2023.101804
Kejriwal, M. (2022). AI in Practice and Implementation: Issues and Costs. Artificial Intelligence for Industries of the Future, 25–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19039-1_2
Kelly, S., Kaye, S.-A., & Oviedo-Trespalacios, O. (2023). What factors contribute to the acceptance of artificial intelligence? A systematic review. Telematics and Informatics, 77, 101925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2022.101925
Klinenberg, E. (2015). Convergence: News production in a digital age. In American Democracy and the Pursuit of Equality (pp. 234–249). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315625248-14/convergence-news-production-digital-age-eric-klinenberg
Klykken, F. H. (2021). Implementing continuous consent in qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 22(5), 795–810. https://doi.org/10.1177/14687941211014366
Kovach, B., & Rosenstiel, T. (2007). The elements of journalism: What newspeople should know and the public should expect. Three Rivers.
Kovach, B., & Rosenstiel, T. (2014). The elements of journalism: What newspeople should know and the public should expect (Revised and updated third edition). Three Rivers Press.
Kuziemski, M., & Misuraca, G. (2020). AI governance in the public sector: Three tales from the frontiers of automated decision-making in democratic settings. Telecommunications Policy, 44(6), 101976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2020.101976
Larraz, I. (2023). Towards Automated Fact-Checking in Africa: The Experience With Artificial Intelligence at Africa Check. In Digitisation, AI and Algorithms in African Journalism and Media Contexts (pp. 3–16). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80455-135-620231001
Lawrence, R. G., & Napoli, P. M. (2023). News quality in the digital age. Taylor & Francis. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=BJeoEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA2008&dq=News+Quality+in+the+Digital+Age&ots=YXSdFUI_oj&sig=lAj06jSFPcASU31CWuyVfy-VTJU
Lazer, D. M. J., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., Metzger, M. J., Nyhan, B., Pennycook, G., Rothschild, D., Schudson, M., Sloman, S. A., Sunstein, C. R., Thorson, E. A., Watts, D. J., & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094–1096. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998
Lim, M. (2018). Disciplining dissent: Freedom, control, and digital activism in Southeast Asia. In Routledge eBooks (Vol. 1, pp. 478–494). Informa. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315562889-44
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications.
Liu, Y., Jiang, C., & Zhao, H. (2019). Assessing product competitive advantages from the perspective of customers by mining user-generated content on social media. Decision Support Systems, 123(1), 113079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2019.113079
Macrotrends. (2025). Nigeria literacy rate 1991-2024. Www.Macrotrends.Net. https://www.macrotrends.net/global-metrics/countries/NGA/nigeria/literacy-rate
Maiangwa, B. (2017). “Conflicting indigeneity” and farmer–herder conflicts in postcolonial Africa. Peace Review, 29(3), 282–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/10402659.2017.1344527
Marconi, F. (2020). Newsmakers: Artificial intelligence and the future of journalism. Columbia University Press. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=1MqWDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT7&dq=Newsmakers:+Artificial+intelligence+and+the+future+of+journalism.+Columbia+University+Press.&ots=yKXhXfoXD7&sig=cxzmgasOoMfQWXVLkxG1mPjdWHk
Marquis, Y., Oladoyinbo, T. O., Olabanji, S. O., Olaniyi, O. O., & Ajayi, S. A. (2024). Proliferation of AI tools: A multifaceted evaluation of user perceptions and emerging trend. Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports, 18(1), 30–55.
Martens, B., Aguir, W. L., Estrella, M., & Muller-Langer, F. (2018). The digital transformation of news media and the rise of disinformation and fake news JRC digital economy working paper 2018-02. JRC Publications Repository. https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC111529
Marwick, A., & Lewis, R. (2017). Media manipulation and disinformation online. https://datasociety.net/pubs/oh/DataAndSociety_MediaManipulationAndDisinformationOnline.pdf
Masotina, M., Federico, L., & Yates, S. (2023). Impartiality and cognitive bias in the fact-checking process: An overview. https://latifproject.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/20231005_Luiss_Report_Impartality-and-Bias_v4.pdf
McGonagle, T. (2017). “Fake news”: False fears or real concerns? Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights, 35(4), 203–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0924051917738685
McKay, S., & Tenove, C. (2020). Disinformation as a threat to deliberative democracy. Political Research Quarterly, 74(3), 106591292093814. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912920938143
McNair, B. (2018). Fake news: Falsehood, fabrication and fantasy in journalism. Routledge.
Metzger, M. J., Flanagin, A. J., Markov, A., Grossman, R., & Bulger, M. (2015). Believing the unbelievable: Understanding young people’s information literacy beliefs and practices in the united states. Journal of Children and Media, 9(3), 325–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2015.1056817
Mills, A. J. (2012). Virality in Social media: The SPIN Framework. Journal of Public Affairs, 12(2), 162–169. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.1418
Mohamed, S., Png, M.-T., & Isaac, W. (2020). Decolonial AI: Decolonial theory as sociotechnical foresight in Artificial Intelligence. Philosophy & Technology, 33(4), 659–684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-020-00405-8
Mohler-Kuo, M., Dzemaili, S., Foster, S., Werlen, L., & Walitza, S. (2021). Stress and mental health among children/adolescents, their parents, and young adults during the first COVID-19 lockdown in switzerland. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4668. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094668
Montal, T., & Reich, Z. (2016). I, Robot. You, Journalist. Who is the Author? Digital Journalism, 5(7), 829–849. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2016.1209083
Muigai, W. J. W. (2019). Understanding Fake News. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications (IJSRP), 9(1), p8505. https://doi.org/10.29322/IJSRP.9.01.2019.p8505
Nabben, K. (2024). AI as a constituted system: Accountability lessons from an LLM experiment. Data & Policy, 6, e57. https://doi.org/10.1017/dap.2024.58
Nakov, P., & Alam, F. (2022). Fact-checking, fake news, propaganda, media bias, and the COVID-19 infodemic. 1632–1634. https://doi.org/10.1145/3488560.3501395
Nakov, P., Da San Martino, G., Elsayed, T., Barrón-Cedeño, A., Míguez, R., Shaar, S., Alam, F., Haouari, F., Hasanain, M., Babulkov, N., Nikolov, A., Shahi, G. K., Struß, J. M., & Mandl, T. (2021). The CLEF-2021 CheckThat! Lab on Detecting Check-Worthy Claims, Previously Fact-Checked Claims, and Fake News. In D. Hiemstra, M.-F. Moens, J. Mothe, R. Perego, M. Potthast, & F. Sebastiani (Eds), Advances in Information Retrieval (Vol. 12657, pp. 639–649). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-72240-1_75
Napoli, P. M., Stonbely, S., McCollough, K., & Renninger, B. (2017). Local journalism and the information needs of local communities: Toward a scalable assessment approach. Journalism Practice, 11(4), 373–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2016.1146625
Neves, B. B., & Amaro, F. (2012). Too old for technology? How the elderly of Lisbon use and perceive ICT. The Journal of Community Informatics, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.15353/joci.v8i1.3061
Ngade, I., Singer, M., Marcus, O., & José, L. (2016). Washing away ebola: Environmental stress, rumor, and ethnomedical response in a deadly epidemic. In A Companion to the Anthropology of Environmental Health (p. 157172). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786949.ch8
Nihei, M. (2022). Epistemic injustice as a philosophical conception for considering fairness and diversity in human-centered AI principles. Interdisciplinary Information Sciences, 28(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.4036/iis.2022.a.01
Nwanne, B. (2016). Journalism and new media in Nigeria: Issues, challenges and prospects. International Journal of Academic Research and Reflection, 4(3), 86–92.
Nwonwu, C., & Tukur, F. (2023). Nigerian elections 2023: False claims and viral videos debunked. BBC News. BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-64797274
Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. 32(2), 303–330.
Odii, C., Ani, K. J., & Ojakorotu, V. (2021). Journalism in COVID-19 Web: Assessing the Gains, Pains, and Perils of Nigerian Journalists in Coronavirus Containment. Journal of Intellectual Disability-Diagnosis and Treatment, 9(2), 213–221.
Ogbodo, J. N., Onwe, E. C., Nwankwo, S. U., & Ewa-Ibe, B. (2024). Fighting fake news proliferation through digital literacy in Africa: Perspectives from Nigerian netizens. African Journalism Studies, 44(2), 134–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2024.2329701
Ojebode, A. (2022). Knowledge mobilization in an era of dis- and misinformation. Journal of Communication and Media Research, 14(1), 26–29.
Okafor, G. O. (2014). The Nigerian mass media and reorientation of values: Problems and prospects. American Journal of Social Sciences, 2(2), 21–28.
Okocha, D. O., & Akpe, S. M. (2022). Fake news and misinformation of COVID-19: Implications for media credibility in nigeria. Health & New Media Research, 6(1), 139–161. https://doi.org/10.22720/hnmr.2022.6.1.139
Okocha, D. O., & James, A. F. (2025). Challenges Nigerian journalists face in spotting fake news. The Journal of Society and Media, 9(2), 694–737. https://doi.org/10.26740/jsm.v9n2.p694-737
Okoro, N., & Emmanuel, N. O. (2018). Beyond misinformation: Survival alternatives for Nigerian media in the “post-truth” era. African Journalism Studies, 39(4), 67–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2018.1551810
Oladokun, B. D., Aruwa, J. E., Ottah, G. A., & Ajani, Y. A. (2024). Misinformation and disinformation in the era of social media: The need for fact-checking skills. Journal of Information and Knowledge, 16(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.17821/srels/2024/v61i1/171266
Olan, F., Jayawickrama, U., Arakpogun, E. O., Suklan, J., & Liu, S. (2022). Fake news on social media: The impact on society. Information Systems Frontiers, 1(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-022-10242-z
Olorunyomi, D. (2018). Fact, Truth and Knowledge: Journalism and the Ethical Community. 5.
Omezi, N., & Jahankhani, H. (2020). Proposed forensic guidelines for the investigation of fake news. Advanced Sciences and Technologies for Security Applications, 231–265. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50613-1_11
Omotola, J. S. (2024). Fake news and Nigeria’s 2019 presidential election. Politikon, 51(1–2), 59–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2024.2428881
Onalu, C. E., Atama, C. S., Ebimgbo, S. O., Nwachukwu, S. T., Idowu, B. O., & Nwafor, N. F. (2022). It Is a Hoax: Attitude of South-eastern Nigerian Toward COVID-19 and Vaccine: The Need for Social Workers. Social Work in Public Health, 37(6), 523–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2022.2048936
Onigbinde, C. O., & Oloyede, B. (2024). Misinformation and disinformation in the Nigerian media landscape. IMSU Journal of Communication Studies, 8(1), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.11551723
Opdahl, A. L., Tessem, B., Dang-Nguyen, D.-T., Motta, E., Setty, V., Throndsen, E., Tverberg, A., & Trattner, C. (2023). Trustworthy journalism through AI. Data & Knowledge Engineering, 146(1), 102182–102182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.datak.2023.102182
Orso, D., Federici, N., Copetti, R., Vetrugno, L., & Bove, T. (2020). Infodemic and the spread of fake news in the COVID-19-era. European Journal of Emergency Medicine, 27(5), 327–328. https://doi.org/10.1097/mej.0000000000000713
Pahune, S., Akhtar, Z., Mandapati, V., & Siddique, K. (2025). The Importance of AI Data Governance in Large Language Models. Big Data and Cognitive Computing, 9(6), 147–147. https://doi.org/10.3390/bdcc9060147
Pate, U. A., Gambo, D., & Ibrahim, A. M. (2019). The impact of fake news and the emerging post-truth political era on Nigerian polity: A review of literature. Studies in Media and Communication, 7(1), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.11114/smc.v7i1.4238
Pérez-Escolar, M., Ordóñez-Olmedo, E., & Alcaide-Pulido, P. (2021). Fact-checking skills and project-based learning about infodemic and disinformation. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 41, 100887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100887
Pessoa, A. S. G., Harper, E., Santos, I. S., & Gracino, M. C. da S. (2019). Using Reflexive Interviewing to Foster Deep Understanding of Research Participants’ Perspectives. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18(18), 160940691882502. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406918825026
Pillow, W. (2003). Confession, catharsis, or cure? Rethinking the uses of reflexivity as methodological power in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 16(2), 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/0951839032000060635
Pospíšilová, H., Trochtová, L., Košárková, A., Mazalová, R., & Macháčková, P. (2025). Recognizing and managing disinformation and misinformation: Qualitative insights into strategies of Third Age university participants. Cogent Education, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2025.2551175
Pozzi, G., & Durán, J. M. (2025). From ethics to epistemology and back again: Informativeness and epistemic injustice in explanatory medical machine learning. AI & SOCIETY, 40(2), 299–310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-024-01875-6
Pulido, C. M., Villarejo-Carballido, B., Redondo-Sama, G., & Gómez, A. (2020). COVID-19 infodemic: More retweets for science-based information on coronavirus than for false information. International Sociology, 35(4), 377–392. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580920914755
Repucci, S., & Slipowitz, A. (2023). Amid unprecedented wave of elections, political violence and armed conflict fueled 19th consecutive year of decline in global freedom (Freedom House, pp. 1–34). Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/article/new-report-amid-unprecedented-wave-elections-political-violence-and-armed-conflict-fueled
Rocha, Y. M., De Moura, G. A., Desidério, G. A., De Oliveira, C. H., Lourenço, F. D., & De Figueiredo Nicolete, L. D. (2023). The impact of fake news on social media and its influence on health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. Journal of Public Health, 31(7), 1007–1016. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-021-01658-z
Roulston, K. (2010). Reflective interviewing: A guide to theory and practice. Routledge. https://www.torrossa.com/gs/resourceProxy?an=4912168&publisher=FZ7200
Roulston, K. (2017). Qualitative interviewing and epistemics. Qualitative Research, 18(3), 322–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794117721738
Sambasivan, N., Arnesen, E., Hutchinson, B., Doshi, T., & Prabhakaran, V. (2021). Re-imagining Algorithmic Fairness in India and Beyond. Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, 315–328. https://doi.org/10.1145/3442188.3445896
Sambe, J. A., & Ikoni, M. (2004). Mass media law and ethics in Nigeria. Caltop Publishers.
Sambrook, K., Konstantinidis, E., Russell, S., & Okan, Y. (2021). The role of personal experience and prior beliefs in shaping climate change perceptions: A narrative review. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 669911. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669911
Samuel, G., & Wassenaar, D. (2024). Joint editorial: Informed consent and AI transcription of qualitative data. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics, 20(1–2), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/15562646241296712
Sánchez Gonzales, H. M., González, M. S., & Alonso-González, M. (2024). Artificial intelligence and disinformation literacy programmes used by European fact-checkers. Catalan Journal of Communication & Cultural Studies, 16(2), 237–255. https://doi.org/10.1386/cjcs_00111_1
Schäffer, B. (2007). The Digital Literacy of Seniors. Research in Comparative and International Education, 2(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.2304/rcie.2007.2.1.29
Schmelkes, S. (2023). Epistemic justice and the knowledge commons for lifelong and lifewide. UNESCO. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/epistemic-justice-and-knowledge-commons-lifelong-and-lifewide-learning
Schudson, M. (2008). News and democratic society: Past, present, and future: Hedgehog Review. Hedgehog Review, Hedgehog Review, 10(2), 7–21.
Schudson, M. (2011). The Sociology of News. W.W. Norton & Company.
Selaković, M. (2022). Fake News and Foreign Direct Investment Inflows: Is there a Relationship? European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 14(2), 24–44. https://doi.org/10.24818/ejis.2022.19
Sharma, A., Zhang, Z., & Rai, R. (2021). The interpretive model of manufacturing: A theoretical framework and research agenda for machine learning in manufacturing. International Journal of Production Research, 59(16), 4960–4994. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2021.1930234
Slimani, K., Khoulji, S., Mortreau, A., & Kerkeb, M. L. (2023). From tradition to innovation: The telecommunications metamorphosis with AI and advanced technologies. Journal of Autonomous Intelligence, 7(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.32629/jai.v7i1.1099
Sofiullahi, A. (2024). How journalism groups in Africa are building AI tools to aid investigations and fact-checking. Gijn.Org. https://gijn.org/stories/africa-journalism-building-ai-investigations-fact-checking/
Stanescu, G. (2023). Informational war: Analyzing false news in the Israel conflict. Social Sciences and Education Research Review, 10(2), 307–310.
Stoycheff, E. (2023). The causes and consequences of media freedom. In Global Journalism in Comparative Perspective (pp. 13–26). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003327639-3
Stratton, S. J. (2024). Purposeful Sampling: Advantages and Pitfalls. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 39(2), 121–122. Cambridge Core. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X24000281
Stray, J. (2021). Making artificial intelligence work for investigative journalism. Routledge eBooks, 7(8), 1076–1097. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003099260-6
Tandoc, E. C., Ling, R., Westlund, O., Duffy, A., Goh, D., & Zheng Wei, L. (2018). Audiences’ acts of authentication in the age of fake news: A conceptual framework. New Media & Society, 20(8), 2745–2763. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817731756
Taylor, J. (2024). 16 inspiring quotes about AI. Peak. https://peak.ai/hub/blog/16-inspiring-quotes-about-ai/
Tischauser, J., & Benn, J. (2019). Whose Post-Truth Era? Confronting the Epistemological Challenges of Teaching Journalism. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 74(2), 130–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695819837406
Toff, B., Badrinathan, S., Mont’Alverne, C., Ross Arguedas, A., Fletcher, R., & Nielsen, R. K. (2021). Listening to what trust in news means to users: Qualitative evidence from four countries. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. https://doi.org/10.60625/RISJ-XHYG-0E19
Tuchman, G. (1978). The news net. Social Research, 253–276.
Udoh, W. A., & Nsude, I. (2022). Awareness of Artificial Intelligence for News Production among Journalists in Ebonyi state Nigeria. International Journal of Network and Communication Research, 7(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.37745/ijncr.16/vol7n13345
Usman, M. (2024). Forensic analysis reveals hate speech, misinformation fueled violence in 2023 polls. The ICIR. https://www.icirnigeria.org/forensic-analysis-reveals-hate-speech-misinformation-fueled-violence-in-2023-polls/?tztc=2
Uwalaka, T. (2022). ‘Abba Kyari did not die of Coronavirus’: Social media and fake news during a global pandemic in Nigeria. Media International Australia, 1329878X2211012. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878x221101216
Uwalaka, T., & Watkins, J. (2018). Social Media as the Fifth Estate in Nigeria: An Analysis of the 2012 Occupy Nigeria Protest. African Journalism Studies, 39(4), 22–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2018.1473274
Verma, D. (2024). Impact of artificial intelligence on journalism: A comprehensive review of AI in journalism. Journal of Communication and Management, 3(02), 150–156. https://doi.org/10.58966/JCM20243212
Waisbord, S. (2018). Truth is what happens to news: On journalism, fake news, and post-truth. Journalism Studies, 19(13), 1866–1878. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670x.2018.1492881
Wardle, C., & Derakhshan, H. (2017). Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policymaking (Vol. 27). Council of Europe Strasbourg. https://www.firstdraftnews.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/PREMS-162317-GBR-2018-Report-de%CC%81sinformation-1.pdf
Whittlestone, J. (2017). The importance of making assumptions: Why confirmation is not necessarily a bias. - WRAP: Warwick Research Archive Portal. In Warwick.ac.uk. https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/id/eprint/95233/
Wiredu, J., Kumi, M., & Ademola, P. H. (2023). An investigation on the characteristics, abilities, constraints, and functions of artificial intelligence (ai): The age of chatgpt as an essential. 108(3), 62614–62620.
World Health Organization. (2020). Immunizing the public against misinformation. Www.Who.Int. https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/immunizing-the-public-against-misinformation
Youngs, I. (2025, June 17). Social media now main source of news in US, research suggests. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c93lzyxkklpo